Organisation and management theory

Two case studies which demonstrates the key organisation and management theory

Case study which demonstrates classical school theory
Primark is a well known store for selling clothing and home furnishing products at a low price within the UK. The reason why Primark tend to sell their products at such cheap price is because their production labour is cheap. Most of their products are made in India and China who produce all the products at very cheap prices. In India there are some companies who use child labour, and Primark used to buy products from those companies. The clothing labour production companies in India are mainly focused on the tasks rather than the working conditions which means that pay is the key motivator. The organisation and management theory used within these companies is the classical school theory. (The independent UK 2009) As the classical school theory mainly concentrates on the tasks rather than the employees, the working conditions are not seriously taken into consideration. As long as all the products are produced in time, that's enough for the company. There is a lot of poverty in India and therefore the people there don't have a choice but to work for these companies as long as they get paid and can provide for their families. India also has a lot of child labour and the reason for this is because company owners believe that children will work for less which is more beneficial for the company because they are producing more for less. Primark previously cut down on buying products from companies who use child labour as a lot of the customers are finding it cruel and therefore stop buying their products. (Time online 2009) Doing work using this theory is better for the organisation because they are getting all of the clothing made and ready to sell to stores such as Primark and therefore they will be making good profit for getting the clothes produced in time and Primark will keep on buying more stock from them as they are so cheap.

Case study which demonstrates human relations theory
Square group is a privately owned business that test drives most of the latest Apple products, such as apple mac laptops and computers, ipod touch, and iPhone etc. This business is located in three different places within the UK and one of them is in High Wycombe. (Square 2009)
As there are different store managers, they all compete against each other to get the best image from the customers and the head manager. The store manager of High Wycombe care a lot about the working conditions of employees as well as the tasks. It is important for the manager to make sure that the working environment is suitable for the employees as well as pointing out clear rules and regulations because it is the employees job to communicate with the customers and sell the products within the store. Square group follows the human relations school theory as their employees is centralised and all the tasks come after them.
Everyone at Square work together as a whole group as it is a very small store and they all tend to get on with each other as well. Members of staff at Square group socialise together as a group outside of work during special occasions such as Christmas and Easter etc. This gives them the chance to get to know each other outside work which will make it easier for each individual to work with each at work. The good thing about working using the human relation school theory method is that people at work will like to work for the company more and therefore will put better effort into their job.

Comparing both of the organisations together
Both organisations are very different as they have various job activities involved and for this reason they tend to follow different theories that suits their business the best. Primark manages to get cheap clothing products from foreign countries such as India. The theory that the Indian company use for their clothing manufacturing business is the classical school theory where money is the only motivator for the employees. This could be good for this particular company due to where it is located and all the clothes can be produced quickly and ready to be sold to other companies such as Primark. If the clothing factories in India used human relations school theory, the tasks won't be done in time and people will treat their work place as a socialising place. However if their working conditions were a bit better, the employees will put more quality and effort into the products. Where as for Square group, it is a good idea that they use the human relation school theory as their business is small and therefore also have small stores within the UK. As there are only a few people working within each store, it is important for those people to get along with each other via socialising together and helping each other out whilst working.

Pros and cons of scientific management

Frederick Winslow Taylor came up with the scientific management and he believed that tasks at work and getting all of the work done, was more important than considering the working conditions of the employees. The advantages of scientific management are that more jobs were available for people as more managers were needed for each department. Work was also done more accurately as the employees had more guidance from their managers. Productivity was more under control as that was the main thing that was taken in to account and the employees would do all their tasks properly because they would get monetary rewards. More products was produced everyday which was better for the organisation as more profit would be coming to them. Due to the scientific management theory, there is now good quality control, different department within the company, and maintenance. (Accel- team development 2009) Another advantage was that the employees didn't need to have high education in order to get a job as training would be provided for them.

The disadvantages of scientific management are that the working conditions were not looked at properly and the managers didn't care how they worked, as long as all the tasks were completed. Employees would get bored after a while because they had to do the same thing over and over again as part of their job. This theory was invented to believe that all workers could only be motivated via money which meant that the workers could get bossed around just to get their pay. Another disadvantage is that the theory was going against the employees human rights and therefore it de-motivated them to work for companies who followed the classical school theory. As employees had to repeat the same productivity, they were getting tired of their job, but at the same time had to carry on with the job due to the pay they were getting, employees were beginning to put less effort in to the products and therefore good quality soon came to an end.

Conclusion

In conclusion there are four different organisation and management theory which are the classical school, human relations, systems approaches and contingency approach theory. Classical school theory is where the scientific management comes under, and all the tasks are at the centre which means that productivity is very important. Human relations is the opposite theory of classical school theory, because employees are at the centre and than work comes after them. A lot of the organisations follow this theory due to strict laws human rights. Systems approach theory is when you bring together two things such as the production and the service to the customers. The organisation tend to connect with a wider environment and use good communication skills to sell their products through their services. Contingency approach theory depends on what the situation which means there isn't just one solution for a problem that could occur within the organisation.




References

• (The independent UK (2009) Primark is named as least ethical clothes shop [online] available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/primark-is-named-as-least-ethical-clothes-shop-518600.html [accessed at: 21/12/09])


• (Time online 2009) Primark drops firms using child labour [online] available at: http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/retailing/article4152660.ece [accessed at 21/12/09])


• (Square (2009) About square group [online] available at: http://www.squaregroup.co.uk/ [accessed at 23/12/09])
• (Accel- team development (2009) scientific management and Frederick Winslow Taylor [online] available at: http://www.accel-team.com/scientific/scientific_02.html [accessed at 28/12/09])

Power and conflict at work

What is conflict
Conflict can be a good thing as well as bad, depending on how you try to define it. Conflict occurs when two groups or individuals don't agree with the same thing, and they will debate or argue until the right solution appears. Companies try their best to minimise conflict as much as possible to keep the environment as friendly and happy as possible. However the reason why conflict can also be a good thing is because there is a chance to solve things carefully using the correct method, and everyone involved will get their chance to have a say. People get to be more creative and solve problems which will improve their communication skills as well as team work. (workhelp.org, 2009)

Conflict in group presentation
When I was doing my A-levels, I had to do a group presentation on "Motivation". There were five students altogether in the group and all the individuals were very open minded which meant that we all had different opinions and had lots of disagreements. As our teacher only gave the whole class one week to prepare all the presentations, the group was under a lot of pressure as we had other assignments to get on with for other subjects. The group had two major conflicts and the first one was that one of the group members decided not to turn up during our discussion meetings which meant that all the hard work was left for the four remaining students. This student didn't take part as much as the rest did and even though we asked her to participate and come up with some ideas, she would refuse and listen to her MP3 player. There was only one solution for this problem which was to confide the teacher about it. The teacher took immediate action and took the student off the group and she got a fail for that assignment. The second conflict that occur ed during this task was that when we were all preparing for the presentation, not everyone agreed to what they wanted to say during the presentation. This made it difficult for the group as we only had little time left, so one of the students made everyone sit down and discuss the problem carefully until everyone was happy with what they were doing. During the discussing process, everyone took part and gave their opinion which made it easier for us as a whole to come up with a conclusion and a solution to the problem.

Different sources of power
Reward power- when conflict occurs in an organisation, reward power is an aspect to minimise the conflict between the employee and the manager or supervisor. Rewards such as work recognition, pay rise, or more useful resources, will keep the employee happy and therefore conflict will get reduced. Conflicts often occurs when an employee is upset with something and doesn't agree with the situation or feel as if their not being rewarded for all the hard work they have put in to keep the business a success,and therefore proving them regular rewards will keep the employees satisfied.
Expert power- there are experts who have a better knowledge and understanding of a particular situation and therefore they have the expert power. For example a teacher has expert power, because they have a better understanding of what they are teaching the students. The students follow and listen to all the instructions and information the teachers provide them, which makes the students the followers of the expert.

Coercive power- some organisation's believe that being able to give their employees punishments is also some sort of power that the employer has. For example if a person works for a fashion company and there job is to organise a whole fashion event, but fails to complete certain tasks in time before the even starts, the manager can punish the employee by saying that they are not going to get promoted or get a bonus payment, which than leaves fear in the employee, and hopefully it pushes them to work harder and get all the tasks completed. (The negotiation academy 2009)

5 strategies that can be used to overcome conflict in an organisation
It is important for an organisation to try and minimise conflict as much as possible as it tends to de-motivate employees if the situation is not dealt with carefully. Below are five ways which could be used in an organisation to minimise conflict.
Clear goals and objectives- if employees are told what their goals and objectives are clearly, than they will be more motivated at work as they know what to do with their job. When these goals and objectives are set to the employees, it is important for the managers to give feedback to them so they know where they are currently working at. Giving regular feedback will minimise conflict, and achieving the objectives and set goals will also be much easier. (J.Mullins 2007) Having appraisal interviews every month or year will also reduce conflict between the employees and managers because it gives the managers the chance to give good positive as well as negative feedback to the employee. The manager can also give suggestions on how to improve their working skills and how to reach higher. If the employee has any doubts or questions which they want answered, during the appraisal interview is the chance for them get everything cleared out.
Non-monetary rewards- some employees tend to improve their performance when they get monetary rewards such as a bonus pay etc. However on the other hand, there are also employees who don't care about the money, but care more about their self respect and want to work in an environment where everyone is friendly and helpful. For example if an employee has worked hard throughout a whole week, and the manager praises them, and encourages them to do well, the employee will get motivated and conflict will also be reduced. However if an employee put all their effort into their work, and doesn't get anything in return, it will de-motivate them, and they will go to the manager with full of anger which could than cause more conflict between the staff. (101 rewards 2009)
Leadership and management- the leadership and management of an organisation could also lead to conflict, if thing aren't managed properly and fairly. It is important for a manager to show respect towards the people who work for him/her. If there is less respect and more bossing around, employees will end up building conflict with the manager, which will than affect work itself. A lot of employees would appreciate encouragement, trust, respect and a working environment where all the staff can work cooperatively. It would be a reasonable idea to form up teams, so the member of staff have people to talk to and solve problems with much easily. As problems will get sorted out straightaway, it will reduce major conflict which is better for the manager because it means that he/she don't have to deal with serious issues that could have occurred without the teams being formed. (Articlebase 2009)
Clear policies and procedures- if a company has a set of clear policies and procedures and are provided to current and new employees, it could reduce conflict because the staff are less likely to break the rules once they know the policies that the company holds. For example if an employee gets a disciplinary and doesn't know the cause of it, it will create conflict because they are going to think that they are getting punished for nothing and therefore will go straight to the manager and cause conflict with the manager. However if everyone within the organisation are fully aware of the policies and procedures, they know what they have to deal with if they get punished. (J.Mullins 2007)
Having access to reasonable technology- having access to technology will make things easier at work and people won't complain as much due to lack of technology. However conflict could occur if the employee are not taught how to use the pieces of technology properly and therefore it is important that the manager trains all the employees how to use all the pieces of technology as it is also part of the health and safety act.

Conflict between group of managers and how it was resolved
During the class lecture there was a group exercise where five students had to do a role play being different managers of a organisation. There was a Human resource manager, Marketing manager, Sales manager, Finance manager and a Store manager. As all of these managers have different roles, they had 15 minutes to discuss their current problem and come up with a solution of how to save 10% of the costs of the business or how to increase sales by 15%. During the meeting, conflict occurred between the managers as they all came up with different ideas on how to solve the problem. Each manager was suggesting things which suited their role the best which meant that they excluded other people's points of view. Most of the managers were trying to immediately get their points across and therefore interrupted a lot which increased the conflict between everyone. In the end the store manager made a comment saying that he couldn't attend to the next important meeting as he was going on holiday the week after and this increased tension because no one could afford to go on holiday during such an important crises. The human resource manager managed to reduce the conflict between the managers because he took everyone points of view into account and he gave everyone an equal opportunity to have their say. He also managed to come up with a good solution that everyone agreed with and therefore in the end they were all happy with the outcome of the meeting. The tense in the air was also reduced by some humour by some of the managers which made it easier for everyone to communicate with each other. What the managers could have to differently to reduce the conflict is give everyone a limited amount of time to have their say where no one can interrupt. During the meeting, they should have had something small to eat and drink like biscuits or water etc as it would have been much easier for them to concentrate.

Conclusion

Overall conflict can affect a lot of organisations but it can also be good for the employees and employers if the situation is dealt with carefully. Conflict allows an organisation to become a better place to work in because it allows people to build up their communcation skills when they are in tensed sitautions and it also allows them to talk things throught professionally and come up with a decent solution that suits everyone. However if a conflict is not dealth with immidiately, it could lead to a worse situation which will be hard to resolve and therefore could bring up a bad image for the business.

References

• (workhelp.org, (2009) When organizational conflict is a good thing [online] available at: http://workhelp.org/joomla/content/view/26/44/ [accessed at: 22/11/09])


• (The negotiation academy (2009) Coervice power and Reward power tactic [online] available at: http://www.negotiationtraining.com.au/articles/coercion-tactics/ [accessed at: 06/12/09])


• (J.Mullins (2007) Management and Organisational behaviour. 8th edition. Edinburgh gate, Harlow, Essex. Page 98)
  
• (101 rewards (2009) Non-monetary rewards and employee motivation [online] available at: http://www.101rewards.com/non-monetary-rewards.html [accessed at: 06/12/09])


• (Articlebase (2009) four things you can do to minimise conflict in the workplace [online] available at: http://www.articlesbase.com/business-articles/four-things-you-can-do-to-minimize-conflict-in-the-workplace-541466.html [accessed at: 06/12/09])

Leadership

Differences between management and leadership

There is a difference between a manager and a leader as they both have different roles within a business or organisation. Even though a leader and a manager guide people to do the right thing and in the correct form of manner, they are both equally important to a business as their contribution pays an important part to a business.

Leadership- "Leadership is all about determination, personality and innate ability at the right time for a particular competitive situation." ( Mullins 2007)
It is important to have good leadership within an organisation because leaders encourage and motivate the employees to aim higher. Leaders need to have good communication skills so they can communicate with the team in an inspiring way that will keep the workers going. It is the leaders role to set clear directions to the team and guide them throughout the whole working procedure. Leaders must have a good relationship with the colleagues which means they have to be more personal and have empathy, so they can connect more with them and so the colleagues can reach out to the leaders when they are struggling with work etc.

Leadership traits- there are a lot of researchers who believe that leaders are born and not made. What they mean by this is that people can't train or teach another to become a leader, as it all comes as a talent or a natural ability of skill. Even though traits approach suggests that leaders are born and not made, the natural talents needs to be developed so they can become a stronger leader. According to trait theory, leaders are able to work with a wide variety of people and take responsibility for them by making sure they are doing the correct task etc.
Leadership style- there are three types of styles which are autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire. These three styles are very different from each other and businesses will follow the leadership style that suits them the best.

• Autocratic- there are managers who prefer to have full power of the company or business, and these types of managers often follow the autocratic style. This means that only the manager makes all the decisions and plan every step to success. Employees must carry out all their daily tasks as they are told and cannot put any input such as giving better ideas of how to improve certain things. This could de-motivate employees who like to get involved with the business and share their ideas with everyone. But the way managers tend to motivate staff who work according to this style is by awarding them rewards such as discounts, benefits, and promotion etc.
  
• Democratic- this leadership style is the opposite to the autocratic style as all the employees have the power to put any input to discussions and ideas. Managers who follow this style keep all the employees informed about everything and if the employees have any doubt or problems with their work, the manager will help them out as much as possible. Even though the manager will make all the final decisions, he/she will get input from the employees so the decision making will become a bit more easier for him/her.


• Laissez-faire- there are also some managers who like to give their employees as much freedom within the working environment as possible. Managers who follow this style tend to look over the employees just to make sure they are doing their tasks properly. Even though there is a main manager, the employees have the power to make important decisions, and reach their own set of goals all on their own. (Essortment 2009)

Contingency style- managers will adapt or change the way they lead their staff according to the situation the company is in. For example if a company is in a bad situation due to recession, there will be more people out there looking for jobs, which means that the current employees working for the company will work to their full ability so they will remain within the company. This means that the company can change the leadership style from democratic to autocratic and be more strict on the employees, so the jobs and tasks can get done in time. If employees don't like the change in leadership, they have the choice to leave their job, but it will be harder for them to find another one. As recession settles down there will be more jobs available and if the work place is not suitable for an employee, they may choose to leave which the company would not want as availability of staff will be low. For this situation the leadership style will have to change again according to the new situation by being more democratic and giving staff more choices and freedom, as they wouldn't want to loose them.

Management- this is seen as a way of reaching the goals and targets within a business. The managers give strict directions and roles to the workers and makes all the important decisions. It is the managers responsibility to plan everything such as how to achieve their business goals and they tend to have a more serious attitude towards employees because the managers aim is to complete and reach all goals, which can only get done through the employees. The manager will not be as emotional with the staff as their role is to keep the company outstanding, where as the leader will be more on the employees side and listen to their points of views etc.

Managerial grid by Blake and Mouton

There are different managers in the business industry that have their own view on how to run a company. Some managers are people-oriented as they believe that specific goals can only be achieved through employees who work for the company and therefore it is important to keep employees happy within the working environment and satisfy all their needs. There are also managers who are task-oriented, and these people concentrate more on tasks rather than the employees. In the 1960's Blake and Mouton came up with a grid so people could understand different styles of leaderships used within an organisation.

Social manager- these type of manager are people- oriented as they believe that looking after staff is way more important than taking care of production and getting tasks completed. Social managers tend to have long term staff because the staff like the working environment as they are well looked after. Managers who are lead by this type of leadership believe that if staff are happy at work, they will work harder even if they are in a fun working environment. Even though this is benefiting the members of staff, the production will suffer as there isn't any control or direction given to the employees.
Team manager- managers who take good care of employees as well as production are known as team managers. Employees will be involved as much as possible so they gain a better understanding of what the company is trying to accomplish and appreciate the production needs. If employees have new ideas of how to improvise the business further and their ideas are taken to consideration, they will feel more part of the company as well as a hard working team. This will encourage the employees to work harder which will then result in good production.
Middle of the road- some managers believe that average performance is good enough in order for a company to remain successful in the business industry. This means that employees are not looked after at top standards nor is the production. The danger of being this type of manager is that production as well as employees will be gone if things are not taken care of properly.
Impoverished manager- this is when the manager takes low commitment towards work and the working environment. If managers follow this style, there is a low chance for that particular company to succeed in the future as employees will feel de-motivated to work for the company, and if there aren't that many employees working for the company, it will be really hard to get the tasks and work done which will eventually lead to closing down the company.
Authoritative manager- this type of management is the total opposite from social management as production is the first priority followed by satisfying the employees needs. Companies that are managed by such managers tend to have strict rules and regulations that employees must follow. If the jobs get done according to the plan, managers will feel satisfied and therefore the employees will feel motivated as they will receive rewards or leaving work early etc.
(Mindtools 2009)

Leadership used in Ajantha's store's

The manager of Ajantha's store's has a main aim which is to make a good profit at the end of each day. In order for him to accomplish this aim, he makes sure that all the workers get on with their job accordingly by giving them directions and guidance if needed. He allows the workers to get involved with the business as much as possible by allowing them to suggest ideas on how to improvise on the business. Even though the manager makes all the final decisions, he believes that the more suggestions and input of importation is delivered by the employees, the easier it will be to make the decisions which is why he tries to involve them more. Everyone at Ajantha's store work as a team in order to succeed at the end of each day and most of the employees feel good about themselves as they have accomplished something by the end of their shift. The manager of Ajantha's store fits in perfectly with team leadership as all the members of the store feel like a family team working to reach for the same aim.

Chris Widener, motivational speaker and author

Chris Widener wrote an article on "Secrets of Successful teams" and in that article he mentioned that part of success comes from good team work. "Sometimes we are the team leader or coach, while other times we fulfill the role of follower, or player.” What he means by this is that people can be put in different situations, and according to each situation, it is your responsibility to play your role properly. Working in teams does not only affect business environments, it can affect all sorts of things such as playing in a basket ball team. It is important for a basket ball team to work as a team in order to become successful and win the games. The team players need to be able to work together as a team as well as having good co-ordination. In the article Widener wrote about some principles on good team leadership and how to be part of a good team.

• Communication- it is important for the leader to have good communication skills so it will be easier for the followers to follow the instructions given by the leader. A good team always communicate with each other and encourage one another to keep on going as well as helping each other out to get the tasks completed.
• Excellence- all team members are trying to achieve the same goal.
• Followership- a good team should have people who are willing to follow others and get the important jobs done and out of the way.
• Fun- in order to get all the jobs done in a positive manner, it is important to keep the spirit up within the team so they team members don't get bored too quickly. This means that the team should take some time off work and socialise more with each other and see the fun side of people.

Widener approaches to leadership by being part of a good team. He believes that if people work together as a team, it will be much easier to reach the main goals as everyone within the team are aiming for the same thing. He thinks that in order to get a task completed, the working environment must be fun to work in as well as making sure that each team member is involved so everyone feels as if they have accomplished something by the end of it.

Link to the article: http://www.woopidoo.com/articles/chriswidener/successful-teams.htm

Martin Luther King, a Motivational speaker

Martin Luther king is a well known leader who is a talented motivational speaker. His speeches were very powerful and he managed to get black people as well as white people's attention and change their views on racism. He was strongly against violence and therefore came up with insirping speeches such as "I have a dream". Martin Luther king became a successful leader because he knew how to get across to his audience which he done through his speeches, but not only did he get people's attention, he also managed to wind down campaigns that other people held, and other white leaders valued that in King. Another reason why King was a powerful leader was because he was standing up for what he believed in and he came up with different ideas to stop racism towards black people in a non-violent way. The reason why he was against violence is because he thought that it wouldnt solve anything and people will just end up loosing their lives. Instead he came up with good speeches that inspired a lot of the audience and alot of the black people also followed his foot steps by trying to solve things in a non-violent manner. (BBC home 2009)

Conclusion

Being a good leader within an organisation is important because there could be employees who are struggling to get on with their work as they don't have enough instructions on what to do etc. Leaders could help employees accomplish their tasks by developing on their skills and knowledge etc. If there isn't good leadership in a business, the business itself will suffer because employees could feel de-motivated which could lead them to quitting the job. Different leadership skills will apply according to the situation the leader is left in, so for example if work urgently has to be done and completed within a certain hour of time, the leader might consider a more strict approach towards the employees, but at the same time be as helpful as they can. Over all the better leadership there is in a business, the more successful it will be in the future.

References

• ( Mullins 2007) Management and organisational behaviour, Eighth edition, Critical reflection, Edinburgh Gate,Harlow, Essex. Page 363)
• (Essortment 2009) Styles of leadership [online], available at: http://www.essortment.com/all/leadershipstyle_rrnq.htm,[ accessed at: 29/10/09])
• (Mindtools 2009) Blake Mouton Managerial grid [online], available at: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_73.htm, [accessed at: 29/10/09])
• (BBC home 2009) Martin Luther King styles of leadership [online] available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/martin_luther_king_05.shtml [accessed at: 11/11/09])

Organisation Culture

Visible aspects of culture of Marks and Spencer
The visible aspect of culture is very important for any organisation, because the first impression of a business will build up personal opinions and views from other people towards the business. If the visible aspects of culture is not very attractive of the organisation, the chances of getting customers will be very low. "The visible aspects culture encompass behaviour patterns, the physical and social environment and the written and spoken language used by the group." ( Schien 1991)

The visible aspect of culture of M&S is that as soon as you walk inside the store, it gives a cosy feeling to the customers and people can also immediately see a wide range of clothing products ready to be purchased. Their logo says Marks and Spencer in green bold writing which tends to stand out a lot. M&S stands out from any other organisation because they have their own unique layout, for example in the food section, the flooring is black, and in the clothing section the flooring is cream\white. So each section within the store has its own coloured floors which enables people to familiarise with the store more. Employees at M&S also wear a uniform which allows the customers to see that all the members of staff are working as one team and that they are representing the organisation. Customers can also instantly see who works at M&S in case they have a problem or inquiry which needs to be sorted out. The background music is always played quietly to give that calm smooth affect of the business.


The hidden aspect of an organisation is basically the base of the business. This is something such as as training staff so they can provide a quality service, and the reason why its a hidden aspect of culture is because customer can't see the training programs that staff must attend etc. "They are implicit assumptions that actually guide behaviour and determine how group members perceive, think and feel about things." (Mullins 2007)

The hidden aspects of culture of M&S are mainly their policies which allows the employers to refer back and see what they have to do in order to keep the business going and what they have to do to get satisfied customers. Employers of M&S have to mainly make sure that they look after their staff properly because the employees are looking after the customers. M&S believe that it is important to keep the whole team very strong from the shop floor level to the management level. They do this by making sure that all employees feel valued and provide them career opportunities and training. This organisation also has a strong trading relationship with different countries across the whole world and they also make sure they do fair trade.

Four types of cultures by Handy
Power culture- this type of culture often occurs within small organisation where the business is mostly run as a partnership or sole trader. The organisations that are influenced by power culture, relies mostly on trust and personal communication amongst the staff. As the business is controlled by one or two people, there are not many systems and rules to follow. In big organisations such as John Lewis or M&S, making decisions will take time because different matters will have to be discussed between the managers. How ever if there is only one person making all the decisions, decision making will be fast as nothing will have to be discussed amongst other staff. Sir Allan Sugar is very much influenced by power culture. He is a reality TV star who comes on The Apprentice TV show. On that show Allan Sugar sets tasks for a group of people and who ever passes all his takes, gets to work for him. As Allan makes all the decisions himself and controls his whole business, people have to follow all his instructions whether they like it or not. (Fresh thinking business 2009)

An example of an organisation that is influenced by power culture would be a small corner shop such as a off licence. For example Ajantha's stores is a newsagent as well as an off licence and the business is controlled by one person, therefore the business is owned by a sole trader. The reason for it being a power culture is because the owner has control of the whole business, which means that he makes all the decisions and he also knows what is best for the business. Even though other members of staff have different ideas of how to improvise the business further and attract more customers, it is all down to the owner to accept or reject the ideas.

Role culture- is more the opposite of power culture and the reason for this is because everything has to be followed by rules and regulations. There are different systems within the organisation that employees and employers have to follow as part of the laws etc. The power is mainly based on the job position which means that the better job role you have, the more important you are within the organisation. This means that not just one person has control over the whole business, but a number of people who have important job positions will also have important decisions to make depending on their job role.
John Lewis is a big organisation where role culture is important because within the organisation there are different departments with different job roles. For example there is a finance department within the organisation where the accountants will work. The accountants have to make sure that they follow all the rules and regulations as it is part of the government law. Even though the products sold at John Lewis will change according to people's life style etc, the accountants will remain the same because they are in a steady state environment and they still have to continue to follow the different laws. People won't look into detail and see the skills the accountants have and see what they are capable of because that is not important to them. They will just look at the job description and that is it. (Linday Sherwin 2009)

Task culture- there are a lot of organisations in the market who run their business in small projects where they have a set of teams working on the project. Organisations who are in task cultures work better in groups rather than individually and people also have more freedom where they can get their tasks completed without being told what to do constantly. While doing the tasks, personal power can be released by each individual so the outcome of the project will be outstanding.
Vogue is an organisation which is in the fashion industry and this company have different fashion shows, photo shoots for their magazines, and many more. Task culture is important for this organisation because run way shows is the main activity which brings in the profit for the business. A run way show is more like a project for the business because different teams get together just to make sure that the whole event goes well. For example there will be a team who will be in charge of the models making sure the make up, clothing, and foot wear is applied carefully on the models. Another team will be in charge of the run way, making sure that all the models go out in order etc. The final team are the people who create the run way. This team come up with the theme, lighting, and fixing the stage for the run way show. In order for the company to make a project successful, they have to make sure that the teams are all hard working, coming up with different ideas and work together as a team. This will make work much more fun for the employees because they get to use their skills and they will be doing something they are really good at.

Person culture- this is when the individual is the centre and even though they work in a big organisation or service, the individual will work at their own paste and in their own time. There are no level of hierarchy for getting things done and there is hardly any management control as the individual will be working using their own skills and knowledge. Person culture will not be very suitable for businesses and organisations because their culture is more different as they are aiming to make a profit, rather than proving a service and helping people.
A doctor would have a person culture as he/she will be working under their own influence and also in their own time. So for example even though a doctor might work for a hospital, they don't have a manager or a boss who will be telling them what to do throughout their shift. The doctors will be their own boss and see patients in their own time. The reason why the doctor is the central focus is because without them there will be no cure for ill patients and make their lives better.

The problems of trying to classify culture into one of the four different cultures by Handy

It might be easy to identify one of the four cultures by handy which an organisation mostly fits in, but that does not necessarily mean that the organisation fits in easily with the cultures that mostly suits the business. For example John Lewis is influenced by the role culture as they have to follow a set of rules and regulations in order to provide a service for the customers. This might be a problem for the organisation because it limits the business into one specific culture which means there is less flexibility between the partners. It is important to have flexibility within a business as you can't always account when problems might occur and the partners need to be ready to solve the problems by making quick decisions etc. If the business isn't flexible enough problems cannot be solved immediately which will eventually bring the business down. As the partners have to follow rules and regulations, they might not feel free which could lead to de-motivation. Even though John Lewis fit mostly in the role culture, they also have lots of project happening within the business, where different partners get together and make the project a success. In that case John Lewis could also fit in with task culture as everyone work together to improve and provide a good equal service for the customers. The task culture also becomes important for John Lewis when the store has to be refurbished and when that takes place, all the staff members have to come together and work as a team to get the task completed.

Why I think John Lewis demonstrates strong culture

John Lewis is a good organisation that demonstrated a strong strong culture. As any other organisation, John Lewis believe that all members of staff should be valued as they are looking after the customers who are bringing the profit to the business. John Lewis treat all their members of staff as a partner of the business, which makes the employees feel more important within the business. On the John Lewis website there is a page where it allows the viewers to read a little bit about the organisation. They make sure that they put the happiness of partners at the centre of everything. The organisation does this by making sure that all the partners benefits from the profit share and other values the the business offers to them. Before making any important decisions, all partners will get a chance to give their voice towards the business which is why they are so successful today as everyone within the organisation are working together as a team.

Some visual aspect of culture of John Lewis is that they provide the customers a quality customer service and treat them all fairly. The business raise their retail standards by launching new products and services as well as trying out new ideas with the customers. The building itself is outstanding because the minute you walk in, people will get a friendly business environment vibe which will attract the customers more. The service is friendly as well as helpful. The organisation make a contribution to the committee and environment, and one way of their contribution is by encouraging their partners give practical help to different charities. The organisation operate a Trust "the golden jubilee trust" where partners of the business can go on a six month leave to help out a charity and during those six months, they will also get a full pay.

Links to the John Lewis website:

• http://www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk/Display.aspx?&MasterId=f7a66235-2266-45d0-92dd-5b61e878eb31&NavigationId=595#serving



• http://www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk/Display.aspx?&MasterId=768e29e8-41aa-4716-bce2-df302fa1c3d8&NavigationId=543

Conclusion

Over all culture is very important within an organisation because it leads to the success of the business. The culture of a business often occurs automatically as the employees are hired and how they are treated within the business. An organisation has to make sure that the visible aspect of culture is attractive so customers would want to come again and maybe purchase something from the business. The hidden aspect of culture is also important for the business because it affect the visible aspects. For example if the staff are not treated fairly or if they don't like working for the business, it will show in their work which will than affect the customer service. Without good culture there is a small chance of success within the business.

References

• ( Schien 1991),(2009) Organisation culture [online], available at: http://books.google.co.uk, [visited at: 20/10/09])
• (Mullins 2007), Management and organisational behaviour, Levels of culture, eighth edition, Edinburgh Gate, Harlow, Essex. Page 722)
• (Fresh thinking business (2009) Sir Allan Sugar Biography [online], available at: http://www.freshthinkingbusiness.com/alan-sugar.html, [accessed at: 21/10/09])
• (Linday Sherwin 2009), Managing change toolkit, The role culture [online], available at: http://www.lindsay-sherwin.co.uk/guide_managing_change/html_overview/05_culture_handy.htm, [accessed at: 21/10/09])

Improving staff performance

The differences between content and process theories

Content theory- When people start or currently work for a business, they have some needs which they would like to posses. Most organisations make sure they give and provide their employees their basic needs in order for them to be motivated within the working environment. The basic needs includes the following:

• Safe working environment


• Health and safety


• Salary


• Good relationships between colleagues and managers


• Growth


• Recognition and many more

There are at least four different theorist's who came up with content theories, but in their own personal assumption.

• Marslow- hierarchy of needs


• Aldefer- ERG theory


• Herzberg- Two factor theory


• McClelland- achievement motivation theory

Process theory- when individuals work for an organisation, some might want to aim higher and have better job roles with more responsibilities. In order for employees to feel motivated, it is important for the employers to help set goals and targets to these willing employees and help them reach higher within the working environment. There are three theories which covers the process theory and they are the following:

• Expectancy theory (Victor Vroom)- this theorist believes that the better effort is put into work, the better the outcome will be. So for example if an employee wants to get promoted, they have to work that much harder and make sure they take in the feed back they get from the manager and then if they done everything as expected, their reward would be the promotion. (Arrod.co.uk 2009) There is a motivational force towards behaviour or tasks that has a function of three separate views which are:
• Expectancy Probability- there are some workers who want to do well for a company and therefore believe that the harder they work and are top of everyone else within the working environment, they have a better chance of producing more for the company.
• Intrumentatility Probability- this is when employees put the extra effort in so they get reward by getting a promotion, or a pay rise etc. Employees who work in retail stores etc, tend to be more competitive because they either want to get promoted or get a pay raise. In order for this to happen, they will all work hard and put more effort into their job.
• Valence-some employees look at the promotion the company has on offer as well as the rewards and they refer it back to their goals. If their goals don't reach or match any of the offers, they might think "is it worth all the hard work and effort?" Therefore they will just stick to what is expected from them by the managers and carry out their job roles by putting in the standard effort. (Quick MBA management 2009)


• Equity theory- this theory is mainly about fairness. When there is a promotion, there will be a lot of employees working hard and putting extra effort to get the job role. For this reason it is important for the manager to choose fairly and carefully, so if the employee doesn't get chosen, they don't feel as if their hard work has gone to waste and put less effort in the future. John Stacey Adams (1963) It all depends on the situation people are in, for example people who are at school will get treated differently compared to people who are at work. Therefore people will get treated according to the situation they are in, but what ever the situation is, they should all be treated fairly as that will motivate people more. (Businessballs .com 2009)


• Goal theory- when employees are set goals which are achievable, the manager has to make sure that he/she gives them regular feed back and comment on how they can improve their working skills. In order to encourage the employee to achieve their goals, it is important for the manager to praise them and mention the good worked they are doing as well.

How does M&S and John Lewis motivate their staff?

It is very important for employers to keep staff motivated, because that will keep them happy in the working environment and they will also be keen to work. If employees feel de-motivated at work, there will be high chances of them leaving, which is expensive for the business or they will not put any effort into their work, which will let the business down. According to secondary research, Marks & Spencer and John Lewis have different methods to keep their staff fully motivated.

M&S- "Our benefits package has been developed to help us attract, motivate and retain the best people in retail and includes everything from subsidised health care and performance related pay rewards to our fantastic employee discount." (Mark and Spencer 2009). M&S do the following in order to keep their staff motivated:

• Review basic pay every year to be competitive against other retailers in the market
• Offer performance rewards to show recognition of employees achievements
• Employees 20% discounts and their family will receive a card so they can enjoy some of the discounts too
• Holidays
• Health and dental care
• Bonuses
• Discounts on a wide range of holidays, health clubs, memberships, leisure attractions
  

John Lewis- make sure that all the employees are treated fairly because that is one of the key things to motivation. John Lewis believe that pay and bonuses is not the only thing that keeps an employees satisfied, but also giving them more responsibilities so they feel more part of the company. (John Lewis 2009) John Lewis do the following in order to keep their staff highly motivated:

• Give everyone an equal opportunity to get promoted
• Give employees bonuses to show that the company is taking note of their achievements
• Employees are rewarded with profit share bonuses, which means that all employees are in a partnership with the company
• 12% discount to all employees
• Paid holidays
• Extended leave
• Holiday and leisure facilities
• Education subsidies
• Bursary for the pursuit of excellence
• Staff parties (Primary research)
• Provide a safe and healthy working environment for the employees

Which motivation model does John Lewis use in practice?

According to secondary research, it seems like John Lewis is approaching Herzberg's theory model, because the company is making sure that both factors are put in use in order to keep the employees motivated. However the company is concentrating more on the hygiene factor rather than the motivation factors. According to secondary and primary research, employees love working at John Lewis due to the bonus scheme, where they share out the profits. Bonuses and salary all come under hygiene factor. On the John Lewis website, there is a page on health and safety, and according to that page, the company take their working conditions very seriously, because they want to make sure that all employees are not put off with the current conditions they are working in as it could lead to staff leaving or receiving complaints from them and the health and safety inspection. The company is concentrating less on the motivation factor, as they are giving plenty of hygiene factors to the employees, and not that many businesses do that. Employees within the organisation are trying their best to get promoted as the people working higher up, get a better bonus from the profit share. As there are a lot of employees competing against each other to get promoted, the company will try to make it harder and set them difficult targets, which everyone will not be able to achieve. This could make work it self harder for the workers. As John Lewis are giving rewards such as education subsidies, will benefit the employees because there are employees who might wish to study and take courses to get them further within the organisation or even get education in something they are interested in. This will motivate the employees because as education is costing a lot of money these days, students will need the extra help they can get in order to pay everything off. All the rewards the John Lewis provide for the employees are part of the hygiene factor. They are giving responsibilities to the staff members so they feel more part of the organisation as well as valued and that is part of the motivation factor.

Conclusion

Over all according to research, different companies use different motivation theories, as they will use what suits their company the best. A company might have one strong motivator, and concentrate on that particular one, as they might think that is what is motivating their employees etc due to a survey or a one to one meeting. It is important for an organisation to provide the basic needs for their employees which is part of content theory, and then allow the employees to grow or aim higher within work which is part of process theory.

References

• (Arrod.co.uk (2009) Dave, Expectancy theory of motivation [online] available at: http://www.arrod.co.uk/archive/concept_vroom.php, [accessed at: 13/10/09])
• Mark and spencers (2009) Rewards and Benefits [online] available at: http://corporate.marksandspencer.com/mscareers/rewards_benefits, [accessed at: 14/10/09])
• John Lewis (2009) John Lewis partnerships, Pay and benefit [online], available at: http://www.johnlewispartnership.co.uk/Display.aspx?&MasterId=68408a6d-eee2-4873-a2fb-420aad32e547&NavigationId=556, [accessed at: 14/10/09])
• (Quick MBA management (2009) Expectancy theory [online] available at: http://www.quickmba.com/mgmt/expectancy-theory/ [accessed at: 10/11/09])
• (Businessballs .com (2009) Adams equity theory [online] available at: http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm [accessed at: 11/11/09])

Motivation theories

Which theory is relevant to me?
When I was doing my A-Levels at school, I was always motivated to complete my course work on time because the teachers always encouraged the students to do the course work properly and spent time with us to explain the work in great detail. If I did a good piece of work, my teacher would always praise me and tell me how good the work is, and this would encourage me to work harder in the future. For this reason the motivation theory that is more relevant to me is Herzberg's theory motivator factor. Herzberg came up with a two factor content theory which are the following:
Hygiene factor were created so a business avoids de-motivated employees. It is very important for a business to keep employees motivated because that way they tend to work harder and take their job more serious. The hygiene factors include:

• Company policy admin
• Supervision
• Work conditions
• Salary
• Relationships
• Status.

Motivator factor is important for the individual employees who work for s business because it gives them the opportunity to aim higher within work, for example by getting promoted. The motivator factors include:

• Achievements
• Recognition
• Work itself
• Responsibility
• Advancement
• Growth
• Challenging

( Tutor2u, Motivation in theory- herzberg's two factor theory, available at: http://tutor2u.net/business/people/motivation_theory_herzberg.asp, accessed at: 05/10/09)

What motivated me to go university?
What motivated me to start uni was mainly my family. Due to the fact that I come from an Asian background, my family believe that it is very important to have some sort of an degree as it will bring a good name to the family and myself. If I want to get married to my boyfriend, his parents will be looking for an educated daughter in law who has managed to achieve something in her life, and therefore I believe that it is important for me to get a degree in the course that I am currently studying.
I also feel that i have a responsibility in the future which is to look after my family and my boy friend's family. In order for me to be able to do that, I need to have a decent job in the future that provides me with a good pay. The reason why I have decided to study accounting and finance is because my parents run their own business and I would like to be part of that in the future by helping them out with their accounts etc. My uncle is also an accountant who has done very well for himself because he has a big house with a swimming pool, nice car and many more, so ever since I met him and saw the life style he was living, I also wanted to become an accountant and earn money so I can provide a better life for my family.
Moving on to the second and third year, the main thing that will keep me motivated is the qualification and degree that I will receive at the end of the course. My motivation is relating to Herzberg theory motivator factor because thinking about the achievements that will be accomplished is what will keep me motivated for the next three years. If I do become a good accountant in the future, the salary and earning potentials will also motivate me.


De-motivated at school
There was a time during my final year of A-level where all the students were finishing up with their final pieces of course work. I remember re doing a piece of course work from the previous year so I could gain a better mark and in order for me to do this piece again, I had to pay for it to be re submitted. As my teacher sat down with me and explained what I had to do in order to improve this better to get at least a grade B, I took down notes as well as my spare time after school just to complete this piece of work. My teacher had a look at my work now and then, and kept on telling me that my work was really good. He gave me brief feedback so I could improve it further and this motivated me even more to do really well. After spending a good week on the piece, I handed in the work. When I was told the mark of the course work, I felt gutted and had the urge to quit everything there and then because I found out that the teacher only improved my work by one mark after all that time and effort I put in. I went up to my teacher and asked him why he only improved my previous score by one mark, and he told me that when it was marked before, the previous teacher was being too generous with your score and that he marked you too high. When he told me that I felt really angry because I just wasted my time on that course work, when I could have done something else with that time. Even though the teacher couldn't really do much about it himself, i disliked him very much and every time I saw him, I would always have an argument with him over the course work. That was until I went up to the head of department and explained the situation. I told her that I put a lot of time and effort in to that piece of course work, and she agreed to re mark the work again. After the work was re marked, my teacher told me that my work was actually a grade A piece of work, which was a big relief for me.


Applying all of the theories discussed during lecture
Maslow's Hierarchy of needs: according to maslow's theory, I was working towards Esteem because I wanted the teacher to recognise all the hard work and effort that I put into the course work, and if he had paid more attention while he was marking the piece the first time round, there wouldn't have been such a big disagreement to begin with and tension between myself and him.
Aldefer ERG theory: Growth would have been relevant to me because I wanted to personally grow and achieve a higher grade than the previous one which is why I re done the course work in the first place. The better grade I got the second time round, the better over all subject grade I would have achieved at the end of the course.
Herzberg two factor theory: sense of personal achievement would have been effective because I didn't let go the fact that my business teacher believed that my work was only improved by one mark, and the fact that I took it further by discussing the matter with head of department, and eventually gaining a better grade than predicted, is a sense of achievement for me.


Conclusion
To conclude this, I think that this topic is understandable and I can relate to a lot of the theorist studied during the lecture. In some way, all three theorists have an impact on my motivation. For example I will be going through maslow's theory, starting from the bottom and then building my way up during the three year course. But mostly I think that Herzberg's theory motivates me the most because recognising achievements and having responsibilities is important to build that motivation during university years.